FIGURES OF SPEECH / RHETORICAL DEVICES

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A figure of speech is figurative language in the form of a single word or Phrase. It can be a special repetition, arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning, or a phrase with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words. There are mainly five figures of speech: simile, metaphor, Hyperbole, Personification and synecdoche. Figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer from their use, as any figure of speech introduces an ambiguity between literal and figurative interpretation. A figure of speech is sometimes called a rhetorical figure or a locution..htm

A figure of speech is a rhetorical device that achieves a special effect by using words in distinctive ways. Though there are hundreds of figures of speech, here we'll focus on just 20 of the most common figures.
Figurative language is often associated with literature—and with poetry in particular. But the fact is, whether we're conscious of it or not, we use figures of speech every day in our own writing and conversations.
For example, common expressions such as "falling in love," "racking our brains," "hitting a sales target," and "climbing the ladder of success" are all metaphors—the most pervasive (omnipresent) figure of all. Likewise, we rely on símiles (analogy, similarity) when making explicit comparisons ("light as a feather") and hyperbole to emphasize a point ("I'm starving!").
Using original figures of speech in our writing is a way to convey meanings in fresh, unexpected ways.

Two common rhetorical devices are irony and metaphor.

The use of metaphor in rhetoric is primarily to convey to the audience a new idea or meaning by linking it to an existing idea or meaning with which the audience is already familiar. The person using the metaphor hopes to help the audience understand the new concept.

Devices of altered signification shift the meaning of words.

1. Metaphor comparison of two objects or ideas that does NOT use "like or "as."
2. Simile is a gentler form of metaphor which tends to use "as" or "like" to compare something to something else. For example, "his beard was like a lion's mane."

Repetition (rhetorical device) is the simple repeating of a word, within a sentence or a poetical line, with no particular placement of the words, in order to secure emphasis. This is such a common literary device that it is almost never even noted as a figure of speech.

Tropes and Schemes

In classical rhetoric, the tropes and schemes fall under the canon of style. These stylistic features certainly do add spice to writing and speaking. And they are commonly thought to be persuasive because they dress up otherwise mundane language; the idea being that we are persuaded by the imagery and artistry because we find it entertaining. There is much more to tropes and schemes than surface considerations. Indeed, politicians and pundits use these language forms to create specific social and political effects by playing on our emotions.
Note: Some examples from "Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student" by Edward P. J. Corbett.
Definitions:

Trope: The use of a word, phrase, or image in a way not intended by its normal signification. Tropes are figures of speech with an unexpected twist in the meaning of words.
Scheme: A change in standard word order or pattern. - Schemes are figures of speech that deal with word order, syntax, letters, and sounds, rather than the meaning of words.

Tropes and schemes are collectively known as figures of speech. The following is a short list of some of the most common figures of speech. I have selected figures that politicians and pundits use often--especially schemes of repetition and word order, which convey authority.

SCHEMES

Anaphora: A scheme in which the same word or phrase is repeated at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences. Example: "I will fight for you. I will fight to save Social Security. I will fight to raise the minimum wage."

Antimetabole -- (also called Epanados) repetition in reverse order. Antimetabole often overlaps with chiasmus,
* Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.

Antithesis: A scheme that makes use of contrasting words, phrases, sentences, or ideas for emphasis (generally used in parallel grammatical structures). Example: " Americans in need are not strangers, they are citizens, not problems, but priorities."

TROPES

Euphemism: The term euphemism refers to polite, indirect expressions that replace words and phrases considered harsh and impolite, or which suggest something unpleasant. Euphemism is an idiomatic expression, which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else, in order to hide its unpleasantness. For example, “kick the bucket” is a euphemism that describes the death of a person. In addition, many organizations use the term “downsizing” for the distressing act of “firing” its employees.

Hyperbole: A trope composed of exaggerated words or ideals used for emphasis and not to be taken literally. Example: "I've told you a million times not to call me a liar!"

Irony: A trope in which a word or phrase is used to mean the opposite of its literal meaning. Example: "I just love scrubbing the floor."

Metaphor: A trope in which a word or phrase is transferred from its literal meaning to stand for something else. Unlike a simile, in which something is said to be "like" something else, a metaphor says something is something else. Example: "Debt is a bottomless sea". Metaphor is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated but share some common characteristics. Simpy put, a metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison.

Oxymoron (plural oxymora, also called paradox): A trope that connects two contradictory terms. Example: “Bill is a cheerful pessimist.” Oxymoron is a special form of Antithesis, whereby two contradictory qualities are predicted at once of the same thing.
 -- Using contradiction in a manner that oddly makes sense: “Without laws, we can have no freedom.” Shakespeare's Julius Caesar also makes use of a famous oxymoron: "Cowards die many times before their deaths"

Paradox: An apparently self-contradictory statement, the underlying meaning of which is revealed only by careful scrutiny. The purpose of a paradox is to arrest attention and provoke fresh thought. The statement “Less is more” is an example.
* How am I supposed to gain experience if I’m constantly turned down for not having any?”

PARALLELISM

Pun: A trope. A play on words in which a homophone is repeated but used in a different sense. Examples: “She was always game for any game."

REPETITION

Rhetorical Question: A trope in which the one asks a leading question. Example: "With all the violence on TV today, is it any wonder kids bring guns to school?"

Simile: A trope in which one states a comparison between two things that are not alike but have similarities. Unlike metaphors, similes employ "like" or "as." Example: "Her eyes are as blue as a robin's egg."

Synecdoche: A trope in which a part stands for the whole. Example: "Tom just bought a fancy new set of wheels."